This is an automated archive made by the Lemmit Bot.
The original was posted on /r/indonesia by /u/JenderalWkwk on 2025-02-25 05:26:11+00:00.
Now this is mostly based on my random readings, so don't expect this to be fully academic, but I hope this post might be quite useful to understanding Indonesia's foreign policy approaches throughout the years.
First off, let's take a look at my attempt at periodizing Indonesia's foreign policy approaches:
- Revolution Era (1945–1949): Diplomacy focused on independence and international recognition (Sjahrir, Amir, Hatta)
- Liberal Democracy Era (1949-1959): Prioritized economic diplomacy, balancing relationships with both Western and Eastern blocs, and multilateralism (Natsir, Soekiman, Wilopo, Ali Sastroamidjojo, Burhanuddin Harahap, Djuanda)
- Guided Democracy Era (1959–1966): Confrontational and global revolutionary approach, emphasizing anti-imperialism and non-alignment (Soekarno)
- New Order Era (1966–1998): Focused on economic development, regional stability, and ASEAN leadership (Soeharto)
- Early Reformasi Era (1998–2004): Emphasized democracy, human rights, and diplomatic reintegration (Habibie, Wahid, Megawati)
- Later Reformasi Era (2004–present): Positioning Indonesia as a rising global player, aimed for a balance between regional stability, economic growth, and global influence (Yudhoyono, Widodo)
Now, let's get to the doctrines of each head of government:
Sjahrir Doctrine (1945–1947) – Diplomacy for Sovereignty
- Key figures: Sutan Sjahrir (PM and Foreign Minister), Amir Sjarifoeddin Harahap (Defense Minister)
- Focused on international diplomacy to gain recognition of Indonesia’s independence.
- Sought support from Western countries, especially the United States and the UN, to counter Dutch aggression.
- Advocated for a realist and international law-based approach to foreign policy.
- Key events: Sjahrir's speech at the UN Security Council, India Rice Policy (sending rice aid to India), Linggadjati Agreement
Amir Doctrine (1947–1948) – Pragmatic Diplomacy for Legitimacy
- Key figures: Amir Sjarifoeddin Harahap (PM and Defense Minister), A.K. Gani (Deputy PM), Agus Salim (Foreign Minister)
- Prioritized diplomacy over military confrontation, bringing Indonesia’s independence struggle to the global stage through the UN and international mediation.
- Accepted strategic compromises, such as the Renville Agreement, despite internal opposition.
- Maintained ties with the Soviet Union and socialist networks while balancing relations with Western powers.
- Key events: Renville Agreement, secret diplomatic outreach to the Soviet Union.
Hatta Doctrine (1948–1950) – The Genesis of "Independent and Active" Foreign Policy
- Key figures: Mohammad Hatta (VP, PM, Defense Minister Ad Interim), Agus Salim (Foreign Minister), Hamengkubuwono IX (Defense Minister)
- Established the Independent and Active (Bebas-Aktif) foreign policy principle which remains in use today
- Prioritized national interests and cooperation with newly independent nations.
- Secured Indonesia's sovereignty through the Round Table Conference
- Secured Indonesia’s membership in the United Nations (UN) and active participation in international forums.
- Key events: "Rowing Between Two Reefs" Speech (genesis of Bebas-Aktif), Dutch Military Aggressions of 1948 and 1949, Roem-Van Roijen Agreement, Round Table Conference, Republic of the United States of Indonesia, return to NKRI
Natsir Doctrine (1950–1951) – Ensuring Domestic Stability
*Key figures: Mohammad Natsir (PM), Mohammad Roem (Foreign Minister)
* Focused on **domestic political stability amid the outbreak of many rebellions** to attract foreign investment
* Focus on settling the West Irian issue
* Entrenchment of Hatta Doctrine's Bebas-Aktif principles into Indonesia's foreign policy approach
* Key events: Indonesia's accession to the UN, breakdown of the first West Irian negotiations, RMS rebellion, Andi Azis rebellion, negotiations with Daud Beureuh regarding Aceh problem
Soekiman Doctrine (1951–1952) – Anti-Communism, Pro-Western Alignment, and Economic Aid
- Key figures: Soekiman Wirjosandjojo (PM), Achmad Soebardjo (Foreign Minister)
- Showed stronger alignment with the United States, especially in economic and military aid
- Deteriorated relations with the People's Republic of China, implementing a trade embargo and restricting its diplomats due to suspicions of ties with the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI).
- Strengthened ties with the United States, seeking economic aid through the Mutual Security Act (MSA).
- Key events: San Francisco Treaty signing (1951), MSA negotiations with the US, public opposition to secretive talks and perceived breach of Bebas-Aktif principles
Wilopo Doctrine (1952–1953) – Restoring Neutrality and Global Image
- Key figures: Wilopo (PM), Moekarto Notowidigdo (Foreign Minister)
- Aimed to restore Indonesia’s international reputation after criticism of the Mutual Security Act (MSA) agreement with the US
- Emphasized non-alignment by reaffirming Indonesia’s "free and active" foreign policy
- Key events: Efforts to distance Indonesia from Cold War blocs
Sastroamidjojo Doctrine (1953–1955, 1956-1957) – Asia-Africa Solidarity
- Key figures: Soekarno (President), Ali Sastroamidjojo (PM), Soenario Sastrowardoyo (Foreign Minister during Ali I Cabinet), Ruslan Abdulgani (Foreign Minister during Ali II Cabinet)
- Initiated the Asian-African Conference (Bandung Conference) in 1955, strengthening solidarity among newly independent countries.
- Marked the beginning of Indonesia’s proactive foreign policy on the global stage.
- Expanded diplomatic relations with the PRC, including Indonesia-China trade agreements and dual citizenship negotiations for Chinese Indonesians.
- Reaffirmed Indonesia’s non-aligned stance, challenging the dominance of Cold War superpowers.
- More aggresive efforts to liberate West Papua, such as the dissolution of the Netherlands-Indonesia Union and raising the issue at the UN, though initial efforts were unsuccessful
- Key events: Asian-African Conference, dissolution of the Netherlands-Indonesia Union, restoration of relationship with PRC
Burhanuddin Doctrine (1955–1956) – Sastroamidjojo Continuity and Democratic Election
- Key figures: Burhanuddin Harahap (PM and Defense Minister), Ide Anak Agung Gde Agung (Foreign Minister)
- Focused on post-Bandung Conference diplomatic consolidation
- Ensured domestic stability to support Indonesia’s first democratic election
- Maintained continuity in foreign policy without significant shifts
- Key events: Indonesia's first General Election in 1955
Djuanda Doctrine (1957-1959) – The Genesis of "Archipelagic State" Principle
- Key figures: Djuanda Kartawidjaja (PM), Soebandrio (Foreign Minister)
- Introduced the Archipelagic State Concept (Wawasan Nusantara), defining Indonesia as an archipelagic nation.
- Declared all waters between Indonesia’s islands as part of its sovereign territory, not international waters.
- Played a key role in shaping international maritime law.
- Key events: Djuanda Declaration
Soekarno Doctrine (1959–1966) – Lighthouse Projects, "New Emerging Forces", Anti-Imperialism, and Konfrontasi
- Key figures: Soekarno (President and PM), Soebandrio (Foreign Minister), Dipa Nusantara Aidit (Deputy Chairman of MPR, Chairman of PKI)
- Advocated for a more confrontational foreign policy, opposing neocolonialism and imperialism. Actions include the Trikora Operation (Liberation of West Papua), Konfrontasi with Malaysia, withdrawal from the UN in 1965
- Launched the "New Emerging Forces" (NEFO) doctrine, uniting socialist and anti-imperialist nations against the "Old Established Forces" (OLDEFO) led by Western powers, exemplified by GANEFO and CONEFO
- Initiated the Non-Aligned Movement as an alternative for developing countries
- Promoted large-scale "Lighthouse Projects" (including hosting Asian Games) to showcase Indonesia’s global leadership
- Closer ties to socialist countries, notably the Soviet Union, People's Republic of China, North Korea, Cuba, and North Vietnam
- Massive defense procurement from Soviet Union led to Indonesia having one of the strongest armed forces in Asia in that time, and ensured political victory on the Trikora Operation ("Liberation of West Papua")
- Established the Jakarta-Pyongyang-Peking Axis as part of the "NEFO strategy" against Western imperialism, strengthening Indonesia-China ties through Beijing’s support for the PKI and the Fifth Force, while North Korea backed Indonesia’s confront...
Content cut off. Read original on https://old.reddit.com/r/indonesia/comments/1ixnl5s/a_brief_summary_of_indonesias_foreign_policy/
